Dark Energy    
Great Sandy Desert    
Manual Scavenging    
India-Greece Relations    
Plastic Waste Crisis in the Himalayan Region 
Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat Scheme
World Rabies Day: A Journey from Myths to Modern Medicine and Prevention

•    However, data from the Hubble Space Telescope suggested the universe's expansion is accelerating.
•    Astronomers attribute this faster expansion to a mysterious force termed dark energy.
•    The term ‘dark’ signifies that the nature of this energy is unknown.
 

1.Dark Energy

Dark Matter and Dark Energy:
•    Dark matter attracts and holds galaxies together, while dark energy repels and drives the expansion of the universe.
•    Despite both being invisible, more is known about dark matter, discovered in the 1920s, compared to dark energy, discovered in 1998.
 

About Dark Energy:
•    The Big Bang occurred 15 billion years ago, leading to the universe's expansion.
•    Earlier, astronomers believed that gravity would slow this expansion, eventually causing the universe to recollapse.

Key Points:
•    Dark Energy accounts for about 68% of the universe, while dark matter makes up roughly 27%. The remaining 5% is ordinary matter.
•    Dark energy is theorized to be responsible for the accelerated expansion observed in the universe.
•    The nature of dark energy remains one of the most significant mysteries in modern physics.
 

Prelims Question:
With reference to dark energy, consider the following statements:
1.    Dark energy was discovered before dark matter.
2.    Dark energy causes the expansion of the universe to accelerate.
3.    Dark matter and dark energy account for more than 90% of the universe’s mass- energy composition.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A)    1 only
B)    2 and 3 only
C)    1 and 3 only
D)    2 only
Answer: B) 2 and 3 only

Mains Question:
Discuss the significance of dark energy in our

and the Gibson Desert in the south.
•    Surrounding Deserts:
o    The Gibson Desert lies to the
south.
o    The Tanami Desert lies to the east.

understanding of the universe's expansion. How         

does it differ from dark matter, and what challenges do astronomers face in studying these phenomena?

2. Great Sandy Desert
GS Paper 1: Geography (Physical Features, Climate, Tribes)

Overview:
•    The Great Sandy Desert is an arid wasteland located in northern Western Australia.
•    It is the second-largest desert in Australia after the Great Victoria Desert, covering an area of 284,993 sq. km.
 

Location:
•    Extent:
o    Stretches from Eighty Mile Beach on the Indian Ocean eastward into the Northern Territory.
o    From Kimberley Downs in the north to the Tropic of Capricorn

Geographical Features:
•    Characterized by:
o    Longitudinal sand ridges.
o    Chains of large salt lakes.
o    Occasional low rocky hills.
o    Vegetation dominated by Triodia

(Spinifex) grass.

Climate:
•    Experiences high daytime temperatures
and cooler overnight temperatures.
•    Low humidity levels are common throughout the region.

Indigenous Population:
•    The desert is sparsely populated, with the primary inhabitants being Indigenous Australians.
•    Main Tribes:
o    Martu: Inhabit the western part.
o    Pintupi: Inhabit the eastern part.

Prelims Question:
With reference to the Great Sandy Desert,

Lok Sabha that no person had died from manual scavenging between 2019 and 2022.

consider the following statements:         

1.    It is Australia's largest desert.
2.    The Great Sandy Desert is located in northern Western Australia and extends into the Northern Territory.
3.    The region is characterized by low rocky hills and salt lakes.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A)    1 and 2 only
B)    2 and 3 only
C)    1 and 3 only
D)    2 only
Answer: B) 2 and 3 only

Mains Question:

What is Manual Scavenging?:
•    Manual scavenging refers to the removal of human excrement from public streets, dry latrines, cleaning septic tanks, gutters, and sewers.
•    The practice is banned under the Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013 (PEMSR).
o    The Act prohibits any manual handling of human excreta.
o    It acknowledges manual scavenging as a “dehumanizing practice”.

Examine the geographical and climatic features of         

the Great Sandy Desert. How have the indigenous tribes adapted to the arid environment of this region?

3. Manual Scavenging
GS Paper 2: Social Justice (Vulnerable Sections of Society)

Context:
•    Recently, the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (MoSJ&E) informed

Reasons for the Prevalence of Manual Scavenging:
1.    Outsourcing of Sewer Cleaning:
o    Local bodies often outsource sewer cleaning to private contractors who operate without accountability.
o    Contractors frequently deny responsibility in cases of worker deaths.
2.    Social Issue:
o    The practice is rooted in caste, class, and income divides.
o    India's caste system continues to assign this work to lower castes, perpetuating stigma.
o    Despite a 1993 ban on employing manual scavengers, discrimination persists, making it difficult for liberated scavengers to secure alternative livelihoods.

Steps Taken to Tackle Manual Scavenging:

1.    Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation (Amendment) Bill, 2020:
o    Proposes to fully mechanize sewer cleaning, introduce on-site protection, and provide compensation for sewer-related deaths.
o    Awaiting cabinet approval.

scavengers, facilitating their
replacement and rehabilitation.
7. National Action Plan for Mechanised Sanitation Ecosystem (NAMASTE):
o Jointly implemented by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs and MoSJ&E, aiming to eradicate unsafe sanitation practices.

2.    Building and Maintenance of Insanitary         

Latrines Act, 2013:
o    Outlaws the construction of unsanitary toilets and the employment of manual scavengers.
o    Provides a constitutional responsibility to offer alternative jobs and assistance to manual scavenging communities.
3.    Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989:
o    Safeguards sanitation workers, with over 90% of manual scavengers belonging to the Scheduled Castes.
4.    Safaimitra Suraksha Challenge (2020):

Prelims Question:
With reference to manual scavenging, consider the following statements:
1.    The practice is completely mechanized under the 2013 Act.
2.    The NAMASTE scheme aims to eradicate unsafe sewer cleaning practices.
3.    Manual scavenging persists due to the outsourcing of sewer cleaning to private contractors.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A)    1 only
B)    2 and 3 only
C)    1 and 2 only
D)    2 only
Answer: B) 2 and 3 only

o    Launched by the Ministry of         

Housing and Urban Affairs to
mechanize sewer cleaning.
o    Ensures that if a human must enter a sewer, they are equipped with proper gear and oxygen tanks.
5.    Rashtriya Garima Abhiyaan:
o    A national campaign launched by Jan Sahas in 2001 to eradicate manual scavenging and restore dignity to affected communities.
6.    Swachhta Abhiyan App:
o    Developed to identify and geotag insanitary latrines and manual

Mains Question:
Discuss the social and economic challenges faced by manual scavengers in India. What steps have been taken by the government to eradicate this practice and rehabilitate affected individuals?

4. India-Greece Relations
GS Paper 2: International Relations

Context:
•    India and Greece have upgraded their relationship to a strategic partnership, aiming to double trade, enhance defence

collaboration, and address shared challenges.
•    The Greek President Katerina Sakellaropoulou conferred the Indian PM with the “Grand Cross of the Order of
Honour” during his visit.
•    The Indian PM paid tribute at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Athens.

India's Relations with Greece:
Historical Linkages:
•    Over 2500 years of contact between India and Greece.
•    Alexander the Great's campaign in the 4th century BCE reached the north- western part of the Indian subcontinent.
•    Diplomatic, trade, and cultural exchanges are evidenced by Ashoka’s edicts and Mauryan coins.
•    Chanakya mentioned the Greek ambassador Megasthenes in Arthashastra.
•    Gandhara art, a fusion of Indian and Greek influences, flourished in present- day Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Commercial Relations:
•    Bilateral trade between India and Greece reached USD 2 billion in 2022-23.
o    India exports aluminium, organic chemicals, fish, and iron to Greece.
o    Greece exports mineral fuels, oils, and aluminium foil to India.
•    India participated as the Honoured Country in the 84th Thessaloniki International Fair in 2019.
Political Relations:
•    Diplomatic relations were established in
1950.
o    Greece opened its embassy in Delhi in 1950; India opened its embassy in Athens in 1978.

•    Greece supports India on key issues like Kashmir and favours India's permanent membership in an expanded UN Security Council.
Defence Relations:
•    Defence cooperation accelerated in 1998, covering areas like military training, joint exercises, and defence industry collaboration.
o    Example: Indian Air Force participation in EXERCISE INIOCHOS-23.
Cultural Ties:
•    Dimitrios Galanos, the first European Indologist, spent 47 years in India, translating Hindu texts into Greek and compiling a Sanskrit-English-Greek dictionary.
•    The "Dimitrios Galanos Chair for Hellenic Studies" was established at Jawaharlal Nehru University in 2000.
•    Prof. Nicholas Kazanas, a Greek Indologist, was awarded the Padma Shri in 2021

•    The Indian Council for Cultural Relations offers an annual scholarship for Greek students to study in India.

Key Monuments and Honours:
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier:
•    Located in Syntagma Square, Athens, this war memorial is dedicated to Greek soldiers who lost their lives in various wars.
•    It symbolizes remembrance and honour
for anonymous soldiers.
Grand Cross of the Order of Honour:
•    The second-highest civilian honour in Greece.
•    Established in 1975, it features the head of goddess Athena and the inscription “ONLY THE RIGHTEOUS SHOULD BE
HONORED”.
•    Awarded to individuals distinguished in politics, diplomacy, culture, science, or social service.

Key Facts about Greece:
•    Location: Southern Europe, bordered by Albania, North Macedonia, Bulgaria, and Turkey.
•    Historical Significance: Greece is considered the cradle of Western civilization, being the birthplace of democracy, philosophy, theater, and the Olympic Games.
•    Government: Parliamentary Republic.
•    Capital: Athens.
•    National Language: Greek.
•    Currency: Euro.
•    Major Mountain Ranges: Pindus and
Taurus.
•    Longest River: Haliacmon River.
•    Highest Mountain: Mount Olympus.

With reference to India-Greece relations,

consider the following statements:
1.    Greece supports India’s permanent
membership in the UN Security Council.
2.    Dimitrios Galanos was the first European Indologist.
3.    Greece is located in Northern Europe. Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A)    1 and 2 only
B)    2 and 3 only
C)    1 and 3 only
D)    1 only
Answer: A) 1 and 2 only

Mains Question:
Examine the significance of the historical, political, and cultural ties between India and Greece. How does their recent strategic partnership enhance bilateral relations, especially in trade and defence cooperation?
 

Prelims Question:
 

5. Plastic Waste Crisis in the
Himalayan Region
GS Paper 3: Environment, Pollution, Waste Management

Context:
•    The Himalayan region, renowned for its pristine environment, is increasingly threatened by plastic pollution.
•    Since 2018, the Himalayan Cleanup (THC) has mobilized volunteers to clean up waste and audit its sources.
•    A key approach to addressing this crisis is Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), which holds manufacturers accountable for their products' entire lifecycle, encouraging sustainable practices.

Plastic Waste Crisis in the Himalayas: Plastic Waste:
•    Plastic pollution has spread to even the remotest parts of the mountains, where no systems exist for bringing the waste down for recycling or disposal.
•    Around 25% of the collected plastic waste consists of recyclable materials like Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) and High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE).
•    75% of the plastic waste is non-recyclable, especially Multi-layered plastics (MLP), which are difficult to manage.
•    Microplastics, formed from larger plastic degradation, have been detected in glaciers, rivers, lakes, and even human tissues in the region.
Sources of Plastic Waste:
•    Major contributors include:
o    Top food brands
o    Smoking and tobacco products
o    Personal care products Waste Generation:

•    Waste generation in the Himalayas is influenced by:
o    Urbanization
o    Tourism
o    Household income levels
•    A large portion of the waste is biodegradable from households and markets, but plastic waste dominates in tourist hotspots.
•    Tourism is a significant driver of plastic waste, especially in regions with inadequate waste management systems.

Challenges of Waste Management in the Himalayas:
Environmental Impact:
•    Open dumping of waste leads to air and soil pollution and destabilizes mountain slopes.
•    The region is crucial for India's water sources, including the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra rivers, which are increasingly polluted by plastic waste.
Threats to Biodiversity:
•    Wildlife, such as the Greater Adjutant stork in Assam, has been found consuming plastic waste instead of natural food sources.
Health Risks:
•    Landfills filled with mixed waste pose health hazards to local communities and disrupt ecosystems.
Key Challenges:
1.    Harsh Terrain and Climate:
o    The rugged landscape and extreme weather make waste collection and disposal more difficult.
2.    Lack of Infrastructure:
o    Waste treatment and recycling facilities are limited or non- existent.


o    The practice of centralized dumping persists, exacerbating pollution.
3.    Regulatory Gaps:
o    Inadequate data on the types and amounts of waste make management difficult.
o    Slow implementation of existing rules like the Solid Waste Management Rules (2016) and Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016).
4.    Lack of Awareness:
o    Communities are aware of the environmental harm from waste but lack proper knowledge on disposal practices.

Problems Regarding EPR in the Himalayan Region:
Non-Recognition of Local Context:
•    Current EPR rules fail to account for the unique challenges of mountain regions, including population density, local

Key Initiatives:
Himalayan Cleanup (THC):
•    THC is the largest campaign addressing
plastic pollution in the mountains.
•    It audits waste and identifies top polluting companies, demanding accountability.
National Action Plan:
•    Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) holds manufacturers accountable for plastic waste management but requires stronger enforcement in the Himalayan region.

Results of Poor Plastic Waste Management:
•    Environmental Degradation: Widespread pollution threatens the ecology of the Himalayas.
•    Impact on Water Sources: Unscientific plastic disposal is contaminating the
region’s vital water bodies.
•    Biodiversity Risk: Wildlife faces the threat of consuming plastic waste.
•    Health Threats: Mixed waste in landfills
harms local communities and ecosystems.

economies, and environmental fragility.         

•    The one-size-fits-all approach overlooks the ecological significance of the Himalayas.
Insufficient Producer Responsibility:
•    The burden of waste management largely falls on consumers and waste managers instead of producers.
•    There are no effective mechanisms for producers to manage waste generated from their products in remote areas.
Limited Implementation:
•    The EPR framework has seen minimal implementation in the Himalayan states.
•    Local bodies lack awareness, which hinders the effective operationalization of EPR.

Prelims Question:
With reference to plastic waste management in the Himalayas, consider the following statements:
1.    Microplastics have been found in
Himalayan rivers and glaciers.
2.    Multi-layered plastics (MLP) are easier to recycle compared to PET and HDPE.
3.    The Himalayan Cleanup (THC) is the largest campaign against plastic pollution in the mountains.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A)    1 and 3 only
B)    2 only
C)    1 and 2 only
D)    1, 2, and 3
Answer: A) 1 and 3 only


Mains Question:
Discuss the challenges of plastic waste management in the Himalayan region. What role can initiatives like Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) play in mitigating the plastic crisis in such ecologically fragile areas?

6. Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat Scheme
GS Paper 3: Environment, Conservation, and Biodiversity

Overview:
•    The Union Cabinet has approved the continuation of the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH) for the 15th Finance Commission cycle.

About the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat Scheme:
•    Type: Centrally Sponsored Scheme.
•    Ministry: Launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
•    It was expanded from the previous scheme, Assistance for the Development of National Parks and Sanctuaries, during the 11th Plan Period.
Objectives:
•    Aims to promote technological interventions in tiger habitats and other wildlife habitats.
•    Covers 55 tiger reserves, 33 elephant reserves, and 718 protected areas with their zones of influence.

Components of the Scheme:
1.    Support to Protected Areas:
o    This includes National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation

Reserves, and Community Reserves.
2.    Protection of Wildlife Outside Protected

Areas:
o    Addresses conservation efforts beyond protected areas to protect wildlife in human-dominated landscapes.
3.    Recovery Programmes for Critically Endangered Species:
o    Focuses on saving critically endangered species and habitats.

Sub-components of IDWH:
1.    Project Tiger:
o    Ensures a viable population of Bengal tigers (classified as endangered).
o    Includes support for Project Cheetah, aimed at the reintroduction of cheetahs in India.
2.    Project Elephant:
o    Aims to conserve elephant populations, reduce human- elephant conflicts, and improve the welfare of captive elephants.
3.    Development of Wildlife Habitat:
o    Includes Project Dolphin and Project Lion under this sub- component to conserve these species and their habitats.


Prelims Question:
With reference to the Integrated Development

medical advancements and the availability of vaccines.

of Wildlife Habitat Scheme, consider the         

following statements:
1.    It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
2.    The scheme benefits only tiger and elephant reserves in India.
3.    Project Lion and Project Dolphin are sub- components of this scheme.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A)    1 and 2 only
B)    1 and 3 only
C)    2 and 3 only
D)    1, 2, and 3
Answer: B) 1 and 3 only

Mains Question:
Discuss the significance of the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat Scheme in conserving endangered species and habitats in India. How do the sub-components like Project Tiger and Project Elephant contribute to biodiversity conservation?

7.    World Rabies Day: A Journey

Rabies: A Global Health Threat:
•    Fatality Rate: Rabies has a near 100% fatality rate once symptoms develop, making it a critical public health challenge.
•    Transmission: The rabies virus is a zoonotic disease caused by viruses from the Lyssavirus family. It infects a wide range of mammals and primarily targets the central nervous system.
o    Most Common Source: Dogs are the most common source, followed by cats, bats, and wild carnivores.
o    Transmission Method: The virus is transmitted through bites or scratches of an infected animal, as saliva carries the virus.
Symptoms and Fatality:
•    Incubation Period: 1 to 3 months, though it varies depending on the bite’s location relative to the brain.
•    Fatality: Once symptoms appear, rabies is almost always fatal.
•    India’s Situation: India accounts for 36% of global rabies deaths, with dog bites being the leading cause.

from Myths to Modern         

Medicine and Prevention
GS Paper 2: Health and Disease Prevention

Context:
•    World Rabies Day is observed on September 28 to commemorate the death of Louis Pasteur and raise awareness about rabies.
•    The recent death of a nine-year-old boy in Alappuzha, Kerala (May 2024) highlights the ongoing threat of rabies despite

Prevention: Post-exposure Prophylaxis (PEP):
•    PEP is the most effective treatment for preventing rabies after potential exposure.
•    Components of PEP:
o    Rabies immunoglobulin (Rabies Ig).
o    A series of rabies vaccine doses.

Rabies Vaccine:
•    How It Works: The vaccine uses an
inactivated virus that stimulates the body

to produce antibodies to neutralize the live virus in case of infection.
•    Administration:
1.    Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP): Given to individuals exposed to rabies, with vaccines administered either into muscles or skin.
2.    Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP): Given to high-risk individuals like veterinarians. If exposed, those with PrEP require two vaccine shots for full protection instead of the usual four-course vaccine in PEP.

Historical Context:
•    Ancient References:
o    Susruta Samhita (Ancient Indian Text): Described rabies symptoms, indicating early awareness of the disease in the Indian subcontinent.
o    Mesopotamian Records: Mentioned rabies and linked the disease to dogs.
o    Hydrophobia: A well-known rabies symptom (fear of water), recognized even in ancient times.
•    19th Century Advancements:
o    The development of germ theory and Louis Pasteur’s work on rabies marked a turning point.
o    Louis Pasteur developed the

o    Germ Theory of Disease: Pasteur's work revolutionized medical science by proving that microorganisms cause diseases.
o    Pasteurization: Invented the process of heating liquids to kill harmful bacteria, a method still widely used today.
o    Rabies Vaccine: Developed in 1885, using a weakened form of the rabies virus. His successful treatment of Joseph Meister, a young boy bitten by a rabid dog, is a landmark achievement in medical history.

Prelims Question:
With reference to rabies and its prevention, consider the following statements:
1.    Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is recommended for all individuals as a general preventive.
2.    Rabies is transmitted only through bites of infected animals.
3.    India accounts for over one-third of global rabies deaths.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A)    1 and 2 only
B)    2 and 3 only
C)    3 only
D)    1, 2, and 3
Answer: C) 3 only

world's first rabies vaccine using         

an attenuated virus. His vaccine was the second developed in history, following the smallpox vaccine.

About Louis Pasteur:
•    Born: December 27, 1822, in Dole, France.
•    Renowned Contributions:

Mains Question:
Discuss the global public health threat posed by rabies. What are the challenges in eradicating rabies, especially in countries like India, and how can modern preventive measures like PEP and PrEP help mitigate this risk?